A reporter cell line for real-time imaging of autophagy and apoptosis.

Simultaneous detection of autophagy and apoptosis is important in drug discovery and signaling studies. Here we report, a real-time reporter cell line for the simultaneous detection of apoptosis and autophagy at single-cell level employing stable integration of two fluorescent protein reporters of apoptosis and autophagy. Cells stably expressing EGFP-LC3 fusion was developed initially as a marker for autophagy and subsequently stably expressed with inter-mitochondrial membrane protein SMAC with RFP fusion to detect mitochondrial permeabilization event of apoptosis. The cell lines faithfully reported the LC3 punctae formation and release of intermembrane proteins in response to diverse apoptotic and autophagic stimuli.

Increased oxytocin-monomeric red fluorescent protein 1 fluorescent intensity with urocortin-like immunoreactivity in the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system of aged transgenic rats.

To visualize oxytocin in the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system, we generated a transgenic rat that expresses the oxytocin-monomeric red fluorescent protein 1 (mRFP1) fusion gene. In the present study, we examined the age-related changes of oxytocin-mRFP1 fluorescent intensity in the posterior pituitary (PP), the supraoptic nucleus (SON) and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of transgenic rats. The mRFP1 fluorescent intensities were significantly increased in the PP, the SON and the PVN of 12-, 18- and 24-month-old transgenic rats in comparison with 3-month-old transgenic rats. Immunohistochemical staining for urocortin, which belongs to the family of corticotropin-releasing factor family, revealed that the numbers of urocortin-like immunoreactive (LI) cells in the SON and the PVN were significantly increased in 12-, 18- and 24-month-old transgenic rats in comparison with 3-month-old transgenic rats. Almost all of urocortin-LI cells co-exist mRFP1-expressing cells in the SON and the PVN of aged transgenic rats. These results suggest that oxytocin content of the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system may be modulated by age-related regulation. The physiological role of the co-existence of oxytocin and urocortin in the SON and PVN of aged rats remains unclear.

ZnO nanoparticles assist the refolding of denatured green fluorescent protein.

Proteins are essential for cellular and biological processes. Proteins are synthesized and fold into the native structure to become active. The inability of a protein molecule to remain in its native conformation is called as protein misfolding, and this is due to several environmental factors. Protein misfolding and aggregation handle several human diseases. Protein misfolding is believed to be one of the causes of several disorders such as cancer, degenerative diseases, and metabolic pathologies. The zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticle was significantly promoted refolding of thermally denatured green fluorescent protein (GFP). In the present study, ZnO nanoparticles interaction with GFP was investigated by ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer, fluorescence spectrophotometer, and dynamic light scattering. Results suggest that the ZnO nanoparticles significantly assist the refolding of denatured GFP.

Autophagy and reactive oxygen species modulate cytotoxicity induced by suppression of ATM kinase activity in head and neck cancer cells.

OBJECTIVES: Because Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM)-deficient cells are hypersensitive to ionizing irradiation and DNA-damaging agents, ATM kinase inhibition is thought to enhance radiochemotherapy efficacy. In this study, we investigated the roles of autophagy and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in modulating cytotoxicity induced by suppression of ATM kinase in head and neck cancer cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We use KU55933 to inhibit ATM kinase activity. The cell viability was determined by MTT assays. Autophagy was examined by Western blot for LC3-II and microscopy for acidic vesicles and EGFP-LC3 punctate formation. DCF-DA staining and flow cytometry were used for analyzing ROS generation. RESULTS: we found that KU55933 reduced cell viability in several head and neck cancer cell lines. KU55933-treated cells showed increased cytoplasmic vesicles, LC3-II accumulation, and EGFP-LC3 punctate formation, indicating that autophagy was induced. KU55933 also increased ROS generation, which was required for autophagy induction because the ROS scavenger N-acetyl-L-cysteine could reduce LC3-II accumulation. KU55933-induced autophagy played a cytoprotective role against ROS-mediated cytotoxicity because autophagy inhibition by chloroquine augmented KU55933's cytotoxicity. In addition, KU55933 reduced cisplatin-resistant head and neck cancer cell viabilities, and induced LC3-II accumulation in these cells. CONCLUSION: Together, these results shed light on KU55933's therapeutic values as well as autophagy inhibitors in treating primary and cisplatin-resistant head and neck cancers.

Acute cocaine induces fast activation of D1 receptor and progressive deactivation of D2 receptor striatal neurons: in vivo optical microprobe [Ca2+]i imaging.

Cocaine induces fast dopamine increases in brain striatal regions, which are recognized to underlie its rewarding effects. Both dopamine D1 and D2 receptors are involved in cocaine's reward but the dynamic downstream consequences of cocaine effects in striatum are not fully understood. Here we used transgenic mice expressing EGFP under the control of either the D1 receptor (D1R) or the D2 receptor (D2R) gene and microprobe optical imaging to assess the dynamic changes in intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)](i)) responses (used as marker of neuronal activation) to acute cocaine in vivo separately for D1R- versus D2R-expressing neurons in striatum. Acute cocaine (8 mg/kg, i.p.) rapidly increased [Ca(2+)](i) in D1R-expressing neurons (10.6 ± 3.2%) in striatum within 8.3 ± 2.3 min after cocaine administration after which the increases plateaued; these fast [Ca(2+)](i) increases were blocked by pretreatment with a D1R antagonist (SCH23390). In contrast, cocaine induced progressive decreases in [Ca(2+)](i) in D2R-expressing neurons (10.4 ± 5.8%) continuously throughout the 30 min that followed cocaine administration; these slower [Ca(2+)](i) decreases were blocked by pretreatment with a D2R antagonist (raclopride). Since activation of striatal D1R-expressing neurons (direct-pathway) enhances cocaine reward, whereas activation of D2R-expressing neurons suppresses it (indirect-pathway) (Lobo et al., 2010), this suggests that cocaine's rewarding effects entail both its fast stimulation of D1R (resulting in abrupt activation of direct-pathway neurons) and a slower stimulation of D2R (resulting in longer-lasting deactivation of indirect-pathway neurons). We also provide direct in vivo evidence of D2R and D1R interactions in the striatal responses to acute cocaine administration.

Leptin regulates energy balance and motivation through action at distinct neural circuits.

BACKGROUND: Overconsumption of calorically dense foods contributes substantially to the current obesity epidemic. The adiposity hormone leptin has been identified as a potential modulator of reward-induced feeding. The current study asked whether leptin signaling within the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and midbrain is involved in effort-based responding for food rewards and/or the modulation of mesolimbic dopamine. METHODS: The contribution of endogenous leptin signaling for food motivation and mesolimbic dopamine tone was examined after viral-mediated reduction of the leptin receptor within LH and midbrain neurons in male rats. RESULTS: Knockdown of leptin receptors selectively in the LH caused increased body weight, caloric consumption, and body fat in rats maintained on a calorically dense diet. Knockdown of leptin receptors selectively in midbrain augmented progressive ratio responding for sucrose and restored high-fat, diet-induced suppression of dopamine content in the nucleus accumbens. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, endogenous leptin signaling in the hypothalamus restrains the overconsumption of calorically dense foods and the consequent increase in body mass, whereas leptin action in the midbrain regulates effort-based responding for food rewards and mesolimbic dopamine tone. These data highlight the ability of leptin to regulate overconsumption of palatable foods and food motivation through pathways that mediate energy homeostasis and reward, respectively.

Application of fluorescent protein-tagged trans factors and immobilized cis elements to monitoring of toxic metals based on in vitro protein-DNA interactions.

Environmental toxic metals cause serious global public health problems. On-site monitoring protects people from exposure to such harmful elements. In this study, the bacterial transcriptional switches were applied to monitoring of toxic metals. ArsR and CadC, trans factors of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, were fused to GFP. The fusion proteins, ArsR-GFP and CadC-GFP, associated with cis elements, P(ars)-O(ars) and P(cad)-O(cad), respectively and dissociated from those upon recognition of As(III) or Pb/Cd. Cell lysates containing ArsR-GFP were pre-incubated with As(III) standard solutions for 15 min and loaded into P(ars)-O(ars)-immobilized microplate wells. Cell lysates containing CadC-GFP were pre-incubated with Pb or Cd solutions and loaded into P(cad)-O(cad)-immobilized wells. The cell lysates were incubated for 15 min and removed from the wells. Fluorescence intensity in the wells dose-dependently decreased in response to As(III) up to 200 µg/l or Pb/Cd up to 100 µg/l. Detection limits were 10 µg/l for As(III) 10 µg/l for Cd, and 20 µg/l for Pb with a microplate fluororeader, whereas 5.0 µg/l for As(III), 1.0 µg/l for Cd, and 10 µg/l for Pb with a handheld fluorometer. This method was available to detect Pb/Cd or As(III) in water containing soil extracts. This is the first demonstration of a simple and rapid fluorometry to detect analytes based on in vitro interaction between a cis element and a trans factor.

Delayed and restricted expression of UAS-regulated GFP gene in early transgenic zebrafish embryos by using the GAL4/UAS system.

A stable Tg(UAS:GFP) zebrafish line was generated and crossed with Tg(hsp70:GAL4) line, in which the GAL4 gene is under the control of an inducible zebrafish promoter derived from the heat shock 70 protein gene (hsp70). The dynamic green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression in early zebrafish embryos in the GAL4/UAS binary system was then investigated. We found that, at early developmental stages, expression of GFP effector gene was restricted and required a long recovery time to reach a detectable level. At later developmental stage (after 2 days postfertilization), GFP could be activated in multiple tissues in a shorter time, apparently due to a higher level of GAL4 messenger RNA induction. It appears that the type of tissues expressing GFP was dependent on whether they had been developed at the time of heat shock. Therefore, the delayed and restricted transgene expression should be taken into consideration when GAL4/UAS system is used to study transgene expression in early developmental stages.

Transgenic mice expressing cyan fluorescent protein as a reporter strain to detect the effects of rotenone toxicity on retinal ganglion cells.

This is the first study using a reporter transgenic model to investigate the effects of an environmental toxin on the retina. Rotenone is a widely used pesticide that inhibits mitochondrial complex I and produces neurotoxicity. Previous studies demonstrated the time course and dose response of rotenone toxicity on retinal ganglion cells (RGC). However, previous analyses of rotenone-induced retinotoxicity provided little detail of the optic nerve axons and cellular pathology. These limitations were successfully surmounted by using a transgenic mouse line shown to express cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) in neurons, including RGC, under regulatory elements of the human the thy1.1 promoter (thy-CFP). Data showed that CFP expression is limited to RGC and their processes in the retina of thy-CFP mice. Eyes exposed to the pesticide rotenone displayed marked alterations in RGC morphology, inner plexiform layer, optic disc, and optic nerves. After 24 h, the number of CFP-labeled RGC was reduced 50%. Correlated with a loss of RGC bodies was an approximate 50% reduction in CFP fluorescence intensity at the optic disc. The findings showed that rotenone-induced degeneration of RGC and their processes can be visualized with exquisite detail in thy-CFP mice, and that this approach may provide a novel and effective way to monitor the association between environmental toxins and neurodegeneration in living animals.

Pentalysine-grafted ROMP polymers for DNA complexation and delivery.

Amphiphilic graft polymers, containing oligolysine groups pendent to a hydrophobic polycyclooctene backbone, were used to form polyplexes with plasmid DNA pZsGreen1-N1. These poly(cyclooctene- graft-pentalysine) structures were found to be effective transfection reagents for COS-1 and HeLa cells. In the case of polymer 1e (average degree of polymerization of 206), protein expression levels 48 h post-transfection were found to be comparable to, or better than, commercial transfection reagents jetPEI and SuperFect. With HeLa cells, GFP expression levels were better than Lipofectamine 2000. Of particular interest was the excellent cell viability seen in experiments with polyplexes formed from the pentalysine-grafted polymers. In the example of the highest molecular weight graft copolymer, polymer 1e, cell viability relative to untreated cells was 99% with COS-1 cells and 92% with HeLa cells in contrast to the commercial reagents, which gave 67-80% with COS-1 cells and 17-52% with HeLa cells. The effectiveness of these polyolefin- graft-pentalysine structures as DNA delivery vehicles is attributed to their amphiphilic nature and branched architecture.

Cellular siRNA delivery mediated by a cell-permeant RNA-binding protein and photoinduced RNA interference.

HIV-1 TAT peptide, which is a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP), was fused to the U1A RNA-binding domain (TatU1A) to generate a sequence-specific siRNA delivery system for mammalian cells. The siRNA contained a short 5'-extension that is specifically recognized by the U1A RNA-binding domain (U1AsiRNA). Specific binding of TatU1A to the U1AsiRNA was confirmed using a gel mobility shift assay. The U1AsiRNA was internalized by cells only when it was preincubated with TatU1A before addition to the cells. Although most of the internalized siRNA seemed to be entrapped in endocytic compartments, efficient redistribution of the entrapped siRNAs was achieved by photostimulation of a fluorophore attached to TatU1A. Once in the cytoplasm, the siRNA induced RNAi-mediated gene silencing. We refer to this delivery strategy as CLIP-RNAi. CLIP-RNAi is a promising strategy for RNAi experiments and for pinpoint RNAi therapy.

Single-molecule study of lateral mobility of epidermal growth factor receptor 2/HER2 on activation.

The transmembrane protein HER2, a member of the epidermal growth factor receptor family of tyrosine kinase, plays important roles in many fundamental cellular processes as well as the pathogenesis of many cancers. In this work, we have applied the single-molecule fluorescence microscopic method to study lateral mobility change of HER2 on activation by imaging and tracking individual GFP-tagged HER2 molecules on the membrane of living cells. The single HER2 molecules displayed different diffusion rates and modes. It was interesting to find that the mobility of HER2 increased upon stimulation by heregulin beta1, the specific ligand of HER3. The faster diffusion was related to the tyrosine phosphorylation of HER2 or EGFR. The results provided new information for the understanding of HER2 activation and molecular mechanism of signal transduction through HER2/HER3 heterodimerization.

Different effects of L-arginine on protein refolding: suppressing aggregates of hydrophobic interaction, not covalent binding.

Arginine is one of the most favorable additives in protein refolding. However, arginine does not work for certain disulfide-bond-containing proteins, which is not yet well explained. In this work, refolding of three proteins in the presence of 0-2 M arginine was investigated and compared. Bovine carbonic anhydrase B (CAB), containing no cysteine, was successfully refolded with the help of arginine. The refolding yield could reach almost 100% in the presence of 0.75 M arginine. However, recombinant human colony stimulating factor (rhG-CSF), containing five cysteines, could only achieve 65% refolding yield. The formation of aggregates was found. Blocking of free SH groups of the denatured rhG-CSF by iodoacetamide and subsequently refolding of the protein could reduce the aggregate formation substantially. Further investigation on recombinant green fluorescence protein (GFP), containing two cysteines, also revealed the accumulation of oligomers. The content of oligomers increased with the concentration of arginine, reaching about 30% at 2 M arginine. Comparison of reduced and nonreduced SDS-PAGE revealed that the oligomers were formed through intermolecular disulfide binding. Analysis of the refolding kinetics indicated that intermolecular disulfide bonds were probably formed in the intermediate stage where arginine slowed down the refolding rate and stabilized the intermediates. The accumulated intermediates with unpaired cysteine possessed more chances to react with each other to form oligomers, whereas arginine failed to inhibit disulfide bond formation.

Control of transcription factor activity and osteoblast differentiation in mammalian cells using an evolved small-molecule-dependent intein.

Inteins are naturally occurring protein elements that catalyze their own excision from within a larger protein together with the ligation of the flanking "extein" sequences. Previously we reported the directed evolution of an intein-based molecular switch in which intein splicing in yeast cells was made dependent on the cell-permeable small molecule 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-HT). Here we show that these evolved inteins are effective means of rendering protein function and biological signaling pathway activation dependent on 4-HT in mammalian cells. We have characterized the generality, speed, and dose dependence of ligand-induced protein splicing in murine NIH3T3 cells and in human HEK293 cells. Evolved inteins were used to control in mammalian cells the function of Gli1 and a truncated form of Gli3, two transcriptional mediators of the Hedgehog signaling pathway. Finally, we show that a complex biological process such as osteoblast differentiation can be made dependent on 4-HT using the evolved intein system. Our findings suggest that evolved small-molecule-dependent inteins may serve as a general means of achieving gene-specific, dose-dependent, post-translational, and small-molecule-induced control over protein activity in mammalian systems.

Small GTPase Rab21 regulates cell adhesion and controls endosomal traffic of beta1-integrins.

Dynamic turnover of integrin cell adhesion molecules to and from the cell surface is central to cell migration. We report for the first time an association between integrins and Rab proteins, which are small GTPases involved in the traffic of endocytotic vesicles. Rab21 (and Rab5) associate with the cytoplasmic domains of alpha-integrin chains, and their expression influences the endo/exocytic traffic of integrins. This function of Rab21 is dependent on its GTP/GDP cycle and proper membrane targeting. Knock down of Rab21 impairs integrin-mediated cell adhesion and motility, whereas its overexpression stimulates cell migration and cancer cell adhesion to collagen and human bone. Finally, overexpression of Rab21 fails to induce cell adhesion via an integrin point mutant deficient in Rab21 association. These data provide mechanistic insight into how integrins are targeted to intracellular compartments and how their traffic regulates cell adhesion.

Temperature-controlled properties of DNA complexes with poly(ethylenimine)-graft-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide).

End-functionalized poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPA) was synthesized by living free radical polymerization and conventional free radical polymerization and was used to prepare graft copolymers with poly(ethylenimine) (PEI). The copolymers exhibited lower critical solution temperature (LCST) behavior between 30 and 32 degrees C and formed complexes with plasmid DNA. The LCST of the copolymers in the DNA complexes increased slightly to approximately 34-35 degrees C. Cytotoxicity of the copolymers was evaluated by measuring lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release from cells. The copolymers exhibited temperature-dependent toxicity, with higher levels of LDH release observed at temperatures above the LCST. Cellular uptake and transfection activity of the DNA complexes with the PEI-g-PNIPA copolymers were lower than those of the control PEI/DNA complexes at temperature below the LCST but increased to the PEI/DNA levels at temperatures above the LCST.

Therapeutic modulation of Akt activity and antitumor efficacy of interleukin-12 against orthotopic murine neuroblastoma.

BACKGROUND: Patients with advanced neuroblastoma have a poor prognosis. The antiapoptotic protein Akt has been implicated as a possible mediator of the resistance of human neuroblastoma cells to apoptosis; the proapoptotic protein Bid, is inhibited by activated Akt. Neuroblastoma has demonstrated responsiveness to immunotherapeutic approaches in preclinical studies, prompting investigation of new therapeutic strategies based on potentiation of the host immune response, including the use of systemic cytokines. METHODS: We examined the antitumor efficacy and mechanisms of action of the central immunoregulatory cytokine interleukin-12 (IL-12) in mice bearing established orthotopic neuroblastoma tumors derived from murine TBJ and Neuro-2a cells. Cohorts of mice (10 mice/group) bearing established orthotopic neuroblastoma tumors were injected intraperitoneally with IL-12 or vehicle and monitored for survival. IL-12-induced apoptosis within the tumor microenvironment was investigated using ribonuclease protection assays, nuclear staining, and electron microscopy. Protein expression was determined via Western blot analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Confocal microscopy was used to examine the distribution of overexpressed Bid-enhanced green fluorescent protein fusion protein (Bid-EGFP) in TBJ cells. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS: IL-12 induced complete tumor regression and long-term survival of 8 (80%) of 10 mice bearing established neuroblastoma tumors compared with 1 (10%) of 10 control mice (P = .0055) and profound tumor cell apoptosis in vivo despite the fact that TBJ and Neuro-2a cells were resistant to receptor-mediated apoptosis in vitro. These cells expressed high levels of phosphorylated Akt, a key prosurvival molecule, and Akt inhibitors sensitized neuroblastoma cells to apoptosis mediated by IL-12-inducible cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma in vitro. IL-12 increased the expression of proapoptotic genes and decreased Akt phosphorylation within established TBJ tumors in conjunction with activation and subcellular translocation of Bid. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that IL-12 overcomes a potentially critical mechanism of tumor self-defense in vivo by inhibiting Akt activity and imply that IL-12 may possess unique therapeutic activity against tumors that express high levels of activated Akt.

Enhanced antitumor efficacy of telomerase-selective oncolytic adenoviral agent OBP-401 with docetaxel: preclinical evaluation of chemovirotherapy.

Oncolytic adenoviruses are being developed as novel anticancer therapeutics and currently undergoing clinical trials. We previously demonstrated that telomerase-specific replication-competent adenovirus (Telomelysin: OBP-301), in which the human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) promoter regulates viral replication, efficiently killed human tumor cells. We further constructed OBP-401 (Telomelysin-GFP) that expresses the green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene under the control of the cytomegalovirus promoter in the E3 region to monitor viral distribution. Here, we examined the feasibility of a single-agent therapy with OBP-401 as well as of combining OBP-401 with chemotherapeutic agents. Infection of OBP-401 alone or followed by the treatment of a chemotherapeutic drug, docetaxel (Taxotere), resulted in a profound in vitro cytotoxicity and GFP expression in various human cancer cell lines originating from different organs (lung, colon, esophagus, stomach, liver and prostate), although the magnitude of antitumor effect varied among the cell types. Other chemotherapeutic drugs such as vinorelbine (Navelbine) and SN38 (the potent active metabolite of irinotecan) combined with OBP-401 also inhibited the growth of human cancer cells. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis demonstrated that docetaxel did not affect viral replication. For in vivo evaluation, nu/nu mice xenografted with H1299 human lung tumor received intratumoral injection of OBP-401 and intraperitoneal administration of docetaxel. Analysis of growth of implanted tumors showed a significant, therapeutic synergism, although OBP-401 alone and docetaxel alone showed modest inhibition of tumor growth. Thus, OBP-401 in combination with docetaxel efficiently enhances the antitumor efficacy both in vitro and in vivo, and the outcome has important implications for tumor-specific oncolytic chemovirotherapies for human cancers.

Effect of pH on thermal- and chemical-induced denaturation of GFP.

Green fluorescent protein (GFP) is an unusually stable autofluorescent protein that is increasingly being exploited for many applications. In this report, we have used fluorescence spectroscopy to study the effect of pH on the denaturation of GFP with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), urea, and heat. Surprisingly, SDS (up to 0.5%) did not have any significant effect on the fluorescence of GFP at pH 7.5 or 8.5 buffers; however, at pH 6.5, the protein lost all fluorescence within 1 min of incubation. Similarly, incubation of GFP with 8 M urea at 50 degrees C resulted in time dependent denaturation of GFP, but only in pH 6.5 buffer. At higher pH values (pH 7.5 and pH 8.5), the GFP was quite stable in 8 M urea at 50 degrees C, showing only a slight decrease in fluorescence. Heat denaturation of GFP was found to be pH dependent as well, with the denaturation being fastest at pH 6.5 as compared to pH 7.5 or pH 8.5. Like the denaturation studies, renaturation of heat-denatured GFP was most efficient at pH 8.5, followed by pH 7.5, and then pH 6.5. These results suggests that GFP undergoes a structural/stability shift between pH 6.5 and pH 7.5, with the GFP structure at pH 6.5 being very sensitive to denaturation by SDS, urea, and heat.

Embryonic stem cell-derived astrocytes expressing drug-inducible transgenes: differentiation and transplantion into the mouse brain.

OBJECT: Embryonic stem cell (ESC)-derived astrocytes have many theoretical and practical advantages as vectors for delivery of gene therapy to the central nervous system (CNS). The aim of this study was to generate highly pure populations of ESC-derived astrocytes expressing drug-inducible transgenes, while minimizing contamination by undifferentiated ESCs METHODS: Embryonic stem cells carrying a doxycycline-inducible green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene were induced to differentiate into astrocytes by using feeder cell-free conditions that are completely defined. More than 95% of these cells expressed the astrocyte markers glial fibrillary acidic protein and GLT-1 glutamate transporter, and the morphological characteristics of these cells were typical of astrocytes. The expression of additional astrocyte markers was detected using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Undifferentiated ESCs comprised fewer than 0.1% of the cells after 10 days in this culture. Positive and negative selection techniques based on fluorescence-activated cell sorting were successfully used to decrease further the numbers of undifferentiated ESCs. Fully differentiated astrocytes expressed a GFP transgene under the tight control of a doxycycline-responsive promoter, and maintained their astrocytic phenotype 24 hours after transplantation into the mouse brain. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that transgenic ESCs can be induced to differentiate into highly pure populations of astrocytes. The astrocytes continue to express the transgene under the tight control of a drug-inducible promoter and are suitable for transplantation into the mouse brain. The number of potentially hazardous ESCs can be minimized using cell-sorting techniques. This strategy may be used to generate cellular vectors for delivering gene therapy to the CNS.